SINERGI : Journal of Strategic Studies & International Affairs

Protracted Conflict in Myanmar and the Role of International Actors

Dr. Md Mahbubul Haque — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Myanmar, one of Southeast Asia's most ethnically diverse nations, continues to grapple with profound challenges in nation-building despite achieving independence 76 years ago. Protracted tensions between the military and ethnic minorities have significantly hindered progress. On 1 February 2021, the military staged a coup, detaining key political figures, including State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi. The aftermath has been devastating, with nearly 6,000 fatalities, over 3.3 million people displaced, and more than half the population now living below the poverty line, predominantly due to violence perpetrated by the military. This study examines the ongoing conflict in Myanmar through the lens of international relations, focusing on the role of international actors in addressing the crisis. Employing a qualitative approach, the research analyses secondary data, including reports, policy documents, and scholarly articles, to explore the geopolitical implications of Myanmar’s unrest. The findings highlight the strategic importance of Myanmar’s location, which shapes its interactions with neighbouring countries and global powers. The protracted conflict has exacerbated domestic instability and generated security concerns for bordering nations, threatening regional peace and stability. This research underscores the critical role of international actors in mediating the crisis and fostering long-term solutions. It calls for a coordinated global response to address the humanitarian crisis, mitigate regional risks, and promote sustainable peace in Myanmar.

Keywords: geopolitical significance; international actors; Myanmar; protracted conflict; regional stability

Pilihan Raya Presiden Amerika Syarikat 2024: Dinamika, Isu dan Implikasi Global

Norhafiza Mohd Hed — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Pilihan Raya Presiden Amerika Syarikat (AS) 2024 yang telah melabuhkan tirainya pada 5 November 2024 menyaksikan kemenangan kali kedua Donald Trump sebagai presiden dalam sejarah politik Amerika. Trump berjaya mengekalkan popularitinya dalam kalangan pengundi Republikan meskipun menghadapi cabaran sengit daripada lawannya, iaitu Kamala Harris yang bertanding di bawah tiket parti Demokrat. Pilihan raya presiden 2024 ini dilihat sebagai peristiwa signifikan yang mencerminkan perubahan politik, ekonomi, dan sosial yang besar dalam konteks moden. Dalam keadaan politik yang berpecah, tumpuan diberikan kepada pengaruh pengundi muda, dikotomi bandar-luar bandar dan minoriti, serta isu-isu seperti ekonomi, hak asasi manusia, dan perubahan iklim yang menjadi agenda utama. Oleh itu, komentar ini membincangkan beberapa dimensi utama pilihan raya presiden AS dengan menumpukan kepada dinamika politik terkini, isu-isu kritikal, serta implikasi global pilihan raya ini. Pada skala global, keputusan pilihan raya ini bukan hanya membawa kesan besar kepada dasar politik dan ekonomi di Amerika Syarikat sahaja, namun ianya memberi impak besar terhadap hubungan dan keselamatan antarabangsa, khususnya isu Palestin-Israel. Secara keseluruhan, artikel ini menekankan signifikan pilihan raya ini dalam menentukan arah masa depan AS dan implikasinya terhadap landskap geopolitik dunia.

Kata Kunci: dinamika; isu; implikasi; geopolitik; Pilihan Raya Presiden Amerika Syarikat

Faktor China dalam Dasar Luar Indonesia

Suhaiza Senin — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines how China's rise has influenced Indonesia's foreign policy towards China, focusing on the historical shifts between tension and harmony in their relations. It aims to analyze the impact of China’s economic growth on Indonesia’s foreign policy through three main factors: systemic (China's economic rise), domestic (Indonesia’s economic and political interests), and individual (leadership roles). The study also evaluates the implications for Indonesia's economic continuity and political stability. Using a qualitative approach and applying foreign policy concepts with a three-level analysis framework, the study argues that systemic factors have reshaped the dynamics of Indonesia-China relations, strengthening China's influence in Southeast Asia. Despite perceiving China as a potential threat, domestic factors and Indonesia's leadership have facilitated a more harmonious relationship. This cooperation has supported Indonesia’s economic stability and political continuity, as well as contributed to broader regional stability in Southeast Asia.

Keywords: 3-level analysis; Indonesian foreign policy; Indonesia-China relations; the rise of China

Contemporary Sino-Indonesian Relations

Tiecheng Tian, Zarina Othman, Aizat Khairi — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Sino-Indonesian relations are characterised by a complex interplay of economic opportunities and geopolitical challenges, shaping both nations' roles in Southeast Asia. This study examines Indonesia’s engagement with China, particularly through its participation in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the Jakarta-Bandung High-Speed Rail project, as a strategy to address critical infrastructure deficits. While Chinese investments have driven industrial modernisation, issues such as cost overruns, project delays, debt dependency, and environmental risks pose significant concerns. Geopolitically, Indonesia’s strategic location in the Indo-Pacific positions it as a pivotal player amidst intensifying regional rivalries. Despite its non-claimant status in the South China Sea dispute, Chinese incursions into Indonesia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) near the Natuna Islands have prompted Jakarta to adopt a more assertive defence policy. Using a qualitative approach and secondary data analysis, this study explores how Indonesia balances economic cooperation with the geopolitical complexities arising from China’s growing influence and the United States’ counterbalancing strategies in the Indo-Pacific. The findings reveal that while economic collaboration with China remains robust—particularly in trade, renewable energy, and electric vehicle manufacturing—Indonesia is increasingly diversifying partnerships and leveraging platforms like ASEAN and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) to mitigate dependency risks. This study underscores the importance of pragmatic engagement, transparency, and trust-building to manage bilateral tensions while advancing mutual growth. Sino-Indonesian relations profoundly influence Southeast Asia’s economic and geopolitical landscape, making sustainable and equitable practices essential for regional stability and shared development.

Keywords: Belt and Road Initiative; Indo-Pacific strategy; regional stability; Sino-Indonesian relations; South China Sea

Human Security and Governance: Indonesian Illegal Migrant Workers in Malaysia

Aizat Khairi, Muhammad Rahimi Hasan — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This study investigates the migration of Indonesian workers to Malaysia, with a specific focus on irregular migrants. Despite Indonesia’s economic growth, factors such as unemployment, low wages, and limited opportunities in rural areas continue to drive migration. Utilising an integrated framework that combines economic incentives and human security dimensions, this research analyses seven components of human security: economic, food, health, social, personal, community, and political security. Primary data, including face-to-face interviews with key stakeholders, underscores this phenomenon's personal and systemic dimensions. Findings reveal that socio-economic challenges in Indonesia act as push factors, while wage disparities and economic prospects in Malaysia serve as pull factors. However, these benefits come with challenges, such as xenophobia, integration difficulties, and societal instability in the host country. This study highlights the limited efficacy of enforcement measures like deportations and suggests policy reforms addressing root causes. This research contributes to understanding irregular migration governance within a human security framework, offering insights into Malaysia’s policy responses.

Keywords: human security; Indonesian workers; illegal migration; push factors; pull factors

Taiwan’s Space Future: The Impact of Technological Autonomy and International Cooperation

Kuan Yu Lin — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines Taiwan's space technology development and its impact on international standing amidst the tension between the national and global approaches. As Taiwan pursues technological independence, it also engages in international cooperation, thus creating a dilemma between political demands and global ethical expectations. Realist theory posits that technological autonomy and national security enhance a country's global status. In contrast, liberalism emphasizes the need for international cooperation and shared technology in space as a collective human interest. The article puts forward two hypotheses: first, increased international cooperation in the space sector raises Taiwan's influence; second, greater technological autonomy may reduce this influence. This study takes "technological autonomy" and "international cooperation" as independent variables, while "international influence" is the dependent variable. This article surveys Taiwan's space technology decisions and their implications for its international position. It indicates that international collaboration is imperative in expanding Taiwan's impact, whereas an emphasis on independence alone may limit its global reach.

Keywords: Technological Autonomy, International Cooperation, Space Technology, National Security, Global Influen

From Allies to Partners: A Historical Analysis of UK-US Relations

Nurhidayu Rosli, Muhammad Zaki Abd Aziz — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines the historical trajectory of the United Kingdom-United States relationship, tracing its evolution from the early 20th century to the present. The study aims to explore how this "special relationship" has developed over time, shaped by geopolitical events, shared values, and mutual strategic interests. While widely recognised as a key partnership, challenges such as diverging priorities and shifting global dynamics have periodically tested its resilience, necessitating a deeper exploration of its historical foundations. Employing a qualitative methodology, the research utilises historical analysis of primary and secondary sources, including diplomatic correspondence, treaties, and academic literature. A thematic approach is adopted to investigate critical phases of the relationship, such as World War II, the Cold War, and the post-Cold War era. Findings reveal that the UK-US relationship has oscillated between periods of profound cooperation and moments of divergence, driven by factors such as economic interdependence, military alliances, and shared democratic principles. Despite these challenges, the relationship's adaptability and resilience have solidified its role as a cornerstone of Western geopolitics. This study enhances the understanding of transatlantic relations by offering insights into the historical dynamics that continue to influence contemporary global affairs. It underscores the UK-US partnership as a model of strategic collaboration and provides lessons for nurturing enduring alliances in an increasingly multipolar world.

Keywords: Cold War; historical analysis; UK-US relationship; Western geopolitics; World War

Responses of Gulf States to the Palestine-Israel Conflict in the Post 7th October 2023

Nasruddin Khalid, Bakri Mat — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The events of 7th October 2023 marked a turning point in Middle Eastern geopolitics, prompting Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states to reassess their foreign policy approaches to the escalating Israel-Palestine conflict. This study explores shifts in GCC foreign policies post-escalation through the lens of Realist theory, focusing on national interests, security concerns, and state survival amid regional instability. Employing qualitative methods, including historical analysis and data triangulation, the research analyses policy statements, reports, and scholarly sources to uncover the motivations behind individual state actions. The findings reveal significant disparities in GCC responses. Saudi Arabia suspended normalisation talks with Israel to align with pro-Palestinian sentiment, while Qatar intensified mediation efforts and expanded humanitarian support. The UAE and Bahrain, balancing diplomatic ties with Israel and public concerns, adopted more cautious stances. Oman maintained neutrality, while Kuwait upheld a strongly pro-Palestinian position. The lack of unified GCC action highlights the bloc's fragmented nature, driven by diverging national priorities and geopolitical alliances. This study sheds light on the complexities of GCC diplomacy and its limitations in formulating a cohesive response to the conflict. By examining these dynamics, the research provides insights into regional geopolitics and proposes strategies to foster unity within the GCC, enhancing its role in addressing the Palestine-Israel conflict and broader regional challenges.

Keywords: diplomatic relations; GCC states; geopolitical strategy; Palestine-Israel conflict; Realism

The Internationalisation of Muslim Chinese Ummah During the Tang Dynasty

Halimah Ye, Azlizan Mat Enh, Suffian Mansor — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The historical ties between Muslim and Chinese cultures hold a significant position in Asian geopolitics and have left an indelible mark on world history. During the Tang Dynasty, the spread of Islam, the flourishing Silk Road, and enhanced communication between China and foreign nations facilitated the migration of numerous Muslim merchants, envoys, and missionaries from Arabia and Persia to China. These Muslim communities became central to foreign trade, connecting China with the Western world through Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. This period represents one of the most remarkable chapters in Chinese history, with Muslim activities during the Tang Dynasty profoundly shaping the nation’s historical and cultural development. This study aims to systematically explore the history of Muslims during the Tang Dynasty in China by utilising textual analysis and examining historical sites. The research provides a foundational framework for further investigations into the enduring influence of Chinese Muslim history, highlighting its significance in the broader narrative of global historical interactions.

Keywords: Chinese Muslims; China-Arab relations; Islam; Tang Dynasty; Silk Road

Security and Diplomacy Amid Uncertainties

Zarina Othman; Bakri Mat; Muhammad Danial Azman — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The Volume 4, Issue 2, 2024 edition of the SINERGI: Journal of Strategic Studies & International Affairs examines key themes in geopolitics, history, and international relations, with a strong focus on China’s role in shaping global and regional dynamics. From its historical connections with Islam during the Tang Dynasty to its modern Belt and Road Initiatives in Southeast Asia, China’s influence remains pivotal. Articles explore China’s impact on Indonesia’s foreign policy, Malaysia’s migrant labour governance, and Taiwan’s technological aspirations. Broader topics, including the US presidential election, Gulf States’ responses to the Palestine-Israel conflict, and Myanmar’s instability, are also addressed. This edition further highlights Malaysia’s developmental policies, its ties with China, and critical book reviews on regional strategies. Together, the articles offer diverse perspectives on historical legacies and modern political challenges, providing valuable insights into international diplomacy and the complexities of a multipolar world.

Keywords: China; diplomacy; geopolitics; history; international relations

Abstrak

SINERGI: Journal of Strategic Studies & International Affairs, Jilid 4, Isu No.2 (Disember) 2024 meneliti tema utama geopolitik, sejarah, dan hubungan antarabangsa, dengan fokus pada peranan China dalam membentuk dinamik serantau dan global. Dari hubungan sejarahnya dengan Islam pada zaman Dinasti Tang hingga Inisiatif Jalur dan Laluan di Asia Tenggara, pengaruh China kekal penting. Artikel-artikel mengupas kesan China terhadap dasar luar Indonesia, pengurusan buruh migran Malaysia, dan aspirasi teknologi Taiwan. Isu lebih luas seperti pilihan raya presiden AS, respons negara Teluk terhadap konflik Palestin-Israel, dan ketidakstabilan di Myanmar turut dianalisis. Edisi ini juga mengetengahkan dasar pembangunan Malaysia, hubungannya dengan China, dan ulasan buku strategi serantau. Artikel-artikel ini menyajikan perspektif mendalam tentang warisan sejarah dan cabaran moden, memberi pandangan berharga tentang diplomasi antarabangsa dalam dunia multipolar.

Kata Kunci: China; diplomasi; geopolitik; hubungan antarabangsa; sejarah

Dasar Populisme dan Pembangunan di Malaysia

Abdul Muein Abadi — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Pergolakan geopolitik dan geoekonomi kontemporari telah memaksa negara sedang membangun di seluruh dunia - termasuk Malaysia - untuk menyemak kembali pendekatan pembangunan domestik pada skala yang lebih intensif berbanding di awal abad ke-21. Perang Rusia-Ukraine yang diikuti lonjakan harga komoditi di pasaran antarabangsa, pelanjutan Perang Perdagangan Amerika Syarikat-China yang diikuti pengaturan semula rantaian bekalan global dan pola perdagangan antarabangsa, disusuli pula dengan ledakan arus perkembangan teknologi yang memberi kuasa dan suara yang lebih besar kepada rakyat teramai untuk sentiasa mengangkat kepentingan mereka dalam setiap dasar dan perencanaan negara telah menimbulkan satu dialektika yang cukup dinamik: bagaimanakah negara sedang membangun, khususnya Malaysia, boleh memaksimumkan peluang serta meminimumkan risiko persekitaran ketidaktentuan geopolitik dan geoekonomi global, sedang dalam masa yang sama memelihara kestabilan ekonomi politik domestik yang semakin dipengaruhi kemaraan ideologi populisme?

61 Tahun Grand Strategy Malaysia – China

Safiqah Abdul Sunat , Nurqamarina Baharuddin — Tue, 31 Dec 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Buku 61 Tahun Grand Strategy Malaysia terhadap China karya Mohamad Ikhram Mohamad Ridzuan, Mohd Ikbal Mohd Huda, dan Sity Daud merupakan sebuah karya akademik yang menawarkan analisis mendalam tentang evolusi dasar luar Malaysia terhadap China dari tahun 1957 hingga 2018. Buku ini diterbitkan oleh Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) pada tahun 2024, menandakan satu pencapaian penting dalam kajian hubungan antarabangsa Malaysia dan kuasa besar China. Karya ini menggabungkan pendekatan sejarah, politik, dan ekonomi dalam menganalisis bagaimana Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara kecil berjaya mengatur strategi hubungan diplomatik dengan China, yang telah melalui pelbagai fasa perubahan besar iaitu daripada permusuhan semasa era Perang Dingin kepada hubungan normalisasi dan akhirnya kepada hubungan diplomasi strategik yang matang. Melalui aplikasi pelbagai sumber primer dan sekunder, penulis menggambarkan bagaimana perubahan dalam struktur antarabangsa, tekanan domestik, dan peranan pemimpin telah mempengaruhi pendekatan Malaysia terhadap China.